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比特派钱包官网app下载苹果|beet

作者：比特派钱包官网app下载苹果

2024-03-07 17:18:01

BEET中文(简体)翻译：剑桥词典

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beet 在英语-中文（简体）词典中的翻译

beetnoun [ C or U ] uk

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/biːt/ us

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/biːt/

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(also sugar beet) a plant with a thick root, often fed to animals or used to make sugar

甜菜，糖萝卜

(beet在剑桥英语-中文（简体）词典的翻译 © Cambridge University Press)

beet的例句

beet

Moreover, sugar beet is grown mainly for sugar production and seed yield is considered to be of secondary importance.

来自 Cambridge English Corpus

Data are pooled over beets and lettuce because there was no crop by seed meal interaction for either year.

来自 Cambridge English Corpus

First, they identified the vowel in each stimulus token in a forced-choice task, with the choices being beet, bit, bait, bet, bat, and but.

来自 Cambridge English Corpus

Special emphasis was given to the effect of inulin and sugar beet fibre on already established infection as a chemotherapeutic approach.

来自 Cambridge English Corpus

The cropping pattern, mainly wheat, barley, and sugar beets, had changed little over the previous decades, except that the cultivation of melons had increased considerably.

来自 Cambridge English Corpus

These increases are usually considered to be the result of improvements in varieties and in beet agronomy.

来自 Cambridge English Corpus

Moreover, the book contains two chapters about biotechnology in beet breeding with all relevant techniques.

来自 Cambridge English Corpus

This book provides infor mation on the impacts of the cultivation and processing of both sugar cane and beet.

来自 Cambridge English Corpus

示例中的观点不代表剑桥词典编辑、剑桥大学出版社和其许可证颁发者的观点。

beet的翻译

中文（繁体）

甜菜，糖蘿蔔…

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西班牙语

remolacha [feminine]…

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葡萄牙语

beterraba [feminine]…

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in Dutch

捷克语

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in Swedish

马来语

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in Ukrainian

俄语

pancar, şeker pancarı…

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betterave [feminine], betterave (à sucre), betterave…

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ビート…

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biet, rode biet…

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řepa, červená řepa…

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bede, roe, rødbede…

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sayur bit, tanaman bit…

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ต้นบีต, บีตรูต…

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củ cải đường, củ dền…

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burak, buraki, burak czerwony…

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beta, rödbeta…

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bit…

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die Zuckerrübe, die Rote Bete…

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rødbete [masculine], rødbete…

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буряк…

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свекла…

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beet的发音是什么？

在英语词典中查看 beet 的释义

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beer tent

beery

beeswax

beeswax wrap

beet

beetle

beetle-browed

beetling

beetroot

beet更多的中文(简体)翻译

全部

sugar beet

beet, at beetroot

go beet red, at go/turn beetroot (red) idiom

go as red as a beet, at go/turn beetroot (red) idiom

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惯用语

go beet red, at go/turn beetroot (red) idiom

go as red as a beet, at go/turn beetroot (red) idiom

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“每日一词”

veggie burger

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/ˈvedʒ.i ˌbɜː.ɡər/

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/ˈvedʒ.i ˌbɝː.ɡɚ/

a type of food similar to a hamburger but made without meat, by pressing together small pieces of vegetables, seeds, etc. into a flat, round shape

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_百度百科网页新闻贴吧知道网盘图片视频地图文库资讯采购百科百度首页登录注册进入词条全站搜索帮助首页秒懂百科特色百科知识专题加入百科百科团队权威合作下载百科APP个人中心收藏查看我的收藏0有用+10beet播报讨论上传视频英语单词beet，英语单词，主要用作名词、及物动词，作名词时译为“甜菜；甜菜根”，作及物动词时译为“生火；修理；改过”。 [1]外文名beet词性名词、及物动词英式发音[biːt]美式发音[biːt]目录1单词用法2短语搭配单词用法播报编辑N-UNCOUNTBeet is a crop with a thick round root. 甜菜→see beetroot [1]短语搭配播报编辑Beet tops 甜菜 ; 甜菜根头 ; 甜菜缨 ; 甜菜头beet alcohol 甜菜酒精beet massecuite 甜菜糖膏beet digger 甜菜挖掘机 ; 甜菜发掘机 ; 甜菜挖堆机beet washer 甜菜清理机 ; 甜菜洗涤器 ; 甜菜清洗工beet drill 甜菜条播机red beet 红甜菜 ; 甜菜 ; 甜菜根Phat Beet 魔音甜菜 [1]新手上路成长任务编辑入门编辑规则本人编辑我有疑问内容质疑在线客服官方贴吧意见反馈投诉建议举报不良信息未通过词条申诉投诉侵权信息封禁查询与解封©2024 Baidu 使用百度前必读 | 百科协议 | 隐私政策 | 百度百科合作平台 | 京ICP证030173号京公网安备110000020000

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莼菜_百度百科

度百科网页新闻贴吧知道网盘图片视频地图文库资讯采购百科百度首页登录注册进入词条全站搜索帮助首页秒懂百科特色百科知识专题加入百科百科团队权威合作下载百科APP个人中心莼菜[chún cài]播报讨论上传视频莼菜科莼菜属植物收藏查看我的收藏0有用+10本词条由“科普中国”科学百科词条编写与应用工作项目审核。莼菜（Brasenia schreberi J. F. Gmel.），莼菜科莼菜属多年生水生草本植物。根茎小，茎细长，多分枝；叶二型，浮水叶为盾状，上面绿色，下面带紫色，无毛；花小，暗紫色，花药条形，果实革质，长圆状卵形，顶端有弯刺。花期6月，果期10~11月。 [10]莼菜的得名，缘于它的嫩茎像细丝。 [13]莼菜原产中国东南部，大多生在长江流域沼泽地，尤以杭州西湖、江苏太湖等地闻名， [14]江西、湖南、四川、云南也有；国外地区，俄罗斯、日本、印度、大洋洲东部及非洲西部也有分布。 [10]莼菜适应性强，性喜温暖和阳光充足、水质清洁的深水环境中，具有一定的耐寒性。莼菜的繁殖方式一般为分株繁殖。 [15]莼菜的茎叶含有丰富的胶质，鲜墩细滑，与茭白、鲈鱼并称为“江南三大名菜”。《齐民要术》称：“芽羹之菜，莼为第一”。莼菜不仅是珍贵的食材，还具有清热、消肿、解毒的功效，主治湿热痢疾、黄疽、水肿、小便不利、热毒痈肿，具有一定的药用价值。 [16]西晋时，张翰在京城洛阳当官，看到秋风起，就想起了家乡的莼菜、鲈鱼，竞弃官而归。后人就将怀念家乡，称为“莼鲈之思”。 [17]中文名莼菜拉丁学名Brasenia schreberi J. F. Gmel. [11-12]界植物界门被子植物门纲木兰纲 [11]目睡莲目 [11]科莼菜科属莼菜属种莼菜命名者及年代J. F. Gmel.,1791国际濒危等级无危（LC） [18]目录1植物学史2形态特征3近种区别4产地生境5生长习性6育植技术▪培育壮苗▪田块修整▪适时移栽▪肥水管理▪适时采收▪罐藏保鲜7病虫防治8主要价值▪药疗▪食用9保护现状10植物文化▪历史典故▪诵咏诗词11植物趣闻12食物营养成分植物学史播报编辑莼菜的得名，缘于它的嫩茎像细丝。 [13]形态特征播报编辑莼菜，莼菜科莼菜属多年生水生草本植物，花两性，须根系，主要分布在10-15cm土层；根茎小，茎细长，多分枝；根状茎具叶及匍匐枝，后者在节部生根，并生具叶枝条及其它匍匐枝。叶椭圆状矩圆形，叶二型，浮水叶为盾状，长3.5-6厘米，宽5-10厘米，上面绿色，下面蓝绿、紫色，两面无毛，从叶脉处皱缩；叶柄长25-40厘米，和花梗均有柔毛。花直径1-2厘米，暗紫色；花梗长6-10厘米；萼片及花瓣条形，长1-1.5厘米，先端圆钝；花药条形，约长4毫米；心皮条形，具微柔毛。坚果矩圆卵形，革质，顶端有弯刺，有3个或更多成熟心皮；种子1-2，卵形。花期6月，果期10-11月。 [1] [10] [19]莼菜近种区别播报编辑莼菜水盾草枝叶根茎小，茎细长，多分枝；叶二型，浮水叶为盾状，上面绿色，下面带紫色，无毛。根系发达，细根多，细长，具分枝，节上生根；叶对生或轮生，稀互生；沉水叶对生，呈圆扇形，掌状分裂，裂片呈狭线形或丝状；浮水叶少数，在花枝顶端互生，呈狭椭圆形或近圆形。花果花小，暗紫色，花药条形，果实革质，长圆状卵形，顶端有弯刺。花单生于枝上部叶腋，小，白、黄、稀紫色，花瓣近基部有橙色腺斑，两侧常有瓣耳；果实革质，不开裂。图片莼菜水盾草产地生境播报编辑莼菜原产中国东南部，原广泛分布在北半球的许多地区，现主要分布在中国、俄罗斯、日本、印度、澳大利亚、北美、加拿大等地，大洋洲东部及非洲西部均有分布。 [1] [10]在中国主要分布在云南、四川、湖南、湖北、江西、浙江、江苏、云南等地，在北纬30°以南地区分布广泛，大多生在长江流域沼泽地，尤以杭州西湖、江苏太湖等地闻名， [14]中国黄河以南、湖北西部利川及重庆市石柱县所有沼泽池塘都有生长，在江苏的太湖（还是“太湖八仙”之一），苏北的高宝湖，尤其以湖北省利川市福宝山莼菜出口韩国、日本等国。杭州的西湖和雷波县的马湖，湖北省利川市和重庆石柱县黄水镇等地生产的莼菜闻名于世。 [2]莼菜分布图生长习性播报编辑莼菜(6张)莼菜适应性强，性喜温暖和阳光充足、水质清洁的深水环境中，具有一定的耐寒性。 [15]莼菜生长适温为20～30℃，在水质清洁、土壤肥沃、水深20～60cm 的水域中生长好，水面温度达40℃时生长缓慢，气温低于15℃时生长逐渐停止，同化产物向茎中贮运，休眠芽形成。遇霜冻则叶片和部分水中茎枯死，以地下茎和留存的水中茎越冬。 [3]育植技术播报编辑培育壮苗培育莼菜的繁殖方式一般为分株繁殖。 [15]育苗采用无性和有性两种方法，一般采用无性繁殖，又称为茎株繁殖。选择土壤淤泥较厚，腐植质含量丰富，但淤泥不过深的田块做苗床，整理好苗床，基土施足，苗床配好底肥，搭好塑料棚架，选用越冬休眠芽发育而成的营养株斜插在苗床上，盖塑料膜。待营养株生长到一定长度后，向深度定植。 [4]田块修整莼菜喜温暖水湿，生长发育过程需要适宜强度，澄清水质，肥沃底土等环境条件。栽植田块要选在无工业污染，能排能灌一年四季不于水的田块。首先要加固成型田埂，深1米，做到不渗漏水，修筑好灌排水堰；二是田里培植加厚土层。要求肥沃疏松的土壤10-14厘米，含有机质2-3%，PH值4-6。每亩用腐熟堆厩肥1500千克或熟牛羊粪1500千克，腐熟饼肥50千克、复合肥20一25千克作底肥；三是消毒灭菌。用硫酸铜、草木灰、杀螺、菜籽饼等对栽培田进行消毒；四是采用化学除草。在莼菜移栽之前，亩用二钾四氯150-200克水25千克喷雾栽培田一次。 [4]适时移栽莼菜一年四季均可栽植，尤以春季萌发前移栽成活率最高，又可当年收获。一般在3月下旬至4月中旬为最佳时间。移栽时起苗剪成每段2-3节，采用穴栽，每穴一株，穴距30厘米，将植株插斜水中。 [4]肥水管理莼菜移栽当年，基肥充足就一般不需追肥。但在贫瘠土壤或基肥不足，发现叶小、发黄、芽细、胶质少时应及时追肥。一般亩施尿素5-10千克，并与粘性河沙和搓成汤团状泥团，将泥团塞人水下莼菜穴土中，使其逐渐溶解，供植株陆续吸收。之后，每年冬春萌芽前亩施草塘泥1500千克或腐熟饼肥50千克，并加过磷酸钙50千克。搞好水质、水位的控制管理。水位控制：初栽期水位深10-30厘米，由浅逐步加深；立夏后，水位逐渐加深到60-80厘米以上，但不超过1米。水质控制：透明度宜在40厘米以上，一旦过浓应立即换水，以保持清洁，以微流动的活水更佳。如为静水池塘，应经常换水，以增加水中氧气。 [4]适时采收采收莼菜春季移栽后，到7月中下旬，莼菜叶基本盖满水面时即可采收。以后每年的5-10月份间分次采收。当年栽植的应少采多留，以养为主，为第二年高产打基础。采摘莼菜必须掌握标准，即在卷叶基本长足，但尚未散开时连同叶和嫩梢一齐采摘。采得过嫩，花工大，产量低，效益差；采得老，叶松散，纤维和单宁成份增加，苦味重，品质低劣。所以，要视其植株生长快慢，一般隔5-10天采收一次。 [4]罐藏保鲜加工保鲜方法一般是采用的罐藏保鲜。其主要工艺流程是收购----杀青----冷却----分级---- 加食用醋酸----包装---灭菌---检验---入库。 [4]病虫防治播报编辑病虫防治莼菜的主要虫害美甲虫。食根金花虫、螺蛳、组以等。菱甲虫发生初期用 25%杀虫双500倍液或 90%晶体敌百虫 800倍液喷雾；食根金花虫每亩用呋喃丹2-3千克拌细土25-30千克，做成核桃大小的药丸施人士中；螺蛳和蝌蚪用具螺杀每亩0.5-l千克，拌制毒土或用菜籽饼第亩5-10千克撒施。叶腐病是莼菜的主要病害，主要是采取预防措施：保护水质清洁、流动或经常换水，不使用未经腐熟的有机肥，移栽前用生石灰清田，生长期及时清除水绵和杂草，发病初期及时剪除发病病叶、病枝，并集中深埋或销毁，防止其漫延和扩张。主要价值播报编辑莼菜莼菜是珍贵的野生水生蔬菜，含有酸性多糖、蛋白质、氨基酸、维生素、组胺和微量元素等，其应用价值集中于医用价值和食用价值。药疗《齐民要术》称：“芽羹之菜，莼为第一”。莼菜不仅是珍贵的食材，还具有清热、消肿、解毒的功效，主治湿热痢疾、黄疽、水肿、小便不利、热毒痈肿，具有一定的药用价值。 [16]古人所谓"莼鲈风味"中的"莼"，就是指的这个菜，亦作药用。 [2]莼菜具有清热，利水、消肿、解毒的功效。治热痢、黄疽、痈肿、疔疮。以全草入药。性味：甘，寒。主治清热解毒，止呕。主治高血压病，泻痢，胃痛，呕吐，反胃，痈疽疔肿，热疖。鲜品煮食或捣烂吞服，外用鲜品捣烂敷患处。《性奈》甘、寒，无毒。成分：叶的背面分泌一种类似琼脂（洋菜）的粘液，在末透露出水面的嫩叶，此种粘液更多。又含蛋白质、脂肪、多缩戊糖、没食子酸等。功用止呕，止泻痢，消炎解毒。胃病：呕吐翻胃（包括慢性胃炎，胃溃疡，胃癌等）：鲜莼菜与鲜鲫鱼同煮食（宜清淡一些，不要太咸）。亦有单用药菜煮食治疗胃癌，获得满意疗效的报道。高血压：鲜莼菜加冰糖适量炖服。痈疽疔肿，头上热疖，无名肿毒：鲜莼菜，鲜大青叶适量，一起捣烂，加白糖再捣如泥，敷于患部，干即更换。同时，另用温黄酒送服此药半杯，一日2次。莼菜的粘液质含有多种营养物质及多缩戊糖，有较好的清热解毒作用，能抑制细菌的生长，食之清胃火，泻肠热，捣烂外敷可治痈疽疔疮。莼菜粘液中的多糖，对实验动物某些肿瘤有抑制作用，将加入癌瘤毒遗传基因的B淋巴细胞和致癌物一起培养后，再把莼菜中的成分掺入，结果发现其对癌瘤毒的活化性有较强的抑制作用。治肺病，莼菜佐膳。久之自愈。防治贫血、肝炎，莼菜中含有丰富的维生素B12，它是细胞生长分裂及维持神经细胞髓鞘完整所必需的成分，临床上可用于防治恶性贫血、巨幼细胞性贫血、肝炎及肝硬化等病症。益智健体。莼菜中含有丰富的锌，为植物中的“锌王”，是小儿最佳的益智健体食品之一，可防治小儿多动症。增强机体免疫功能，莼菜含有一种酸性杂多糖，它不仅能够增加免疫器官--脾脏的重量，而且能明显地促进巨噬细胞吞噬异物，是一种较好的免疫促进剂，可以增强机体的免疫功能，预防疾病的发生。 [4]相关文献《医林纂要》载“除烦，解热，消痰”。莼菜性寒，不可多食和久食。莼菜营养丰富，含有大量丙种维生素、蛋白质和微量铁质，具有美容、健胃、强身、防癌等功效。据李时珍《本草纲目》记载，莼菜可以消渴热痹，和鲫鱼作羹时下气止呕，补大小肠虚气，治热疸，厚肠胃，安下焦，逐水解毒.《齐民要术》：“魏，性纯而易生。种以浅深为候，水深则茎肥而叶少，水浅则茎瘦而叶多。其性逐水而滑，故谓之药菜，并得葵名。”　《日华子本草》：“治热疽，厚肠胃，安下焦，解百药毒。”　《医林纂要》：“除烦，解热，消疾。”　《本草汇言》：“药菜凉胃疗疽，散热痹之药也。此草性冷而滑，和姜醋作羹食，大清胃火，消酒积，止暑热成痢。”《藕与莼菜》选自《叶圣陶集》（第五卷），江苏教育出版社1988年版。叶圣陶（1894～1988），现代作家、教育家、出版家、社会活动家。江苏苏州人。 [5]食用莼菜嫩茎叶作蔬菜，采莼菜尚未透露出水面的嫩叶食用，是一种地方名菜。 [2]保护现状播报编辑由于多年未做有效的品种提纯复壮和品种保护，莼菜种性退化已经比较严重，质量和产量都在下降。2011年，西湖莼菜入选浙江省首批农作物种质资源保护名录，并已在西湖区大清谷生态区和双浦镇各建立了一个占地5亩的西湖莼菜种质资源保护区，开展有关研究和保护工作。（引自杭州日报-西湖莼菜入选浙江首批农作物种质资源保护名录，2011.1.11）保护级别列入《中国物种红色名录》（植物部分） [6] ；列入《中国生物多样性红色名录-高等植物卷》——极危 [6]；列入《世界自然保护联盟濒危物种红色名录》（IUCN）——无危（LC） [7]；列入中国《国家重点保护野生植物名录》——二级 [8-9]。植物文化播报编辑历史典故据《晋书·张翰传》载，齐王冏辟张翰为大司马东曹椽，在洛阳。张翰因见秋风起，乃思吴中菰菜、莼羹、鲈鱼脍，说：“人生贵得适志：何能羁官数千里以要名爵乎？”遂命驾而归、后人常用“莼羹鲈脍”为辞官归乡的典收。又据《世语新说·言语》：王武子问陆机江南有什么东西可以与北方羊酪相比，陆机答复，“有千里莼羹，但未下盐豉耳。”当时人誉为名对。　民间谚语：“摘老菱当心触刺，采药菜当心滑脱”。本意指做任何事情都应该小心谨慎才好。相传乾隆帝下江南，每到杭州都必以莼菜调羹进餐，并派人定期运回宫廷食用。它鲜嫩滑腻，用来调羹作汤，清香浓郁，被视为宴席上的珍贵食品。西晋时，张翰在京城洛阳当官，看到秋风起，就想起了家乡的莼菜、鲈鱼，竞弃官而归。后人就将怀念家乡，称为“莼鲈之思”。 [17]诵咏诗词唐·白居易：“犹有路鲈鱼莼菜兴，来春或拟往江东。”宋·苏轼：“若问三吴胜事，不唯千里莼羹。”宋·陆游：“店家菰饭香初熟，市担莼丝滑欲流”；“小艇湘湖自采部’，“携友菜采湘湖路”。宋·徐似道。《花羹》：“千里餐丝未下盐，北游谁复话江南。可怜一著秋风味，错被旁人舌本参。”元·黄复生。《莼菜》：“被人绣满水仙裳，地轴天机不敢藏。水谷冷缠琼缕滑，翠铀清缀玉丝香。江湖美味牵情久，京络思归引兴长，欲剪吴松缝不得，谩拖秋思绕诗肠。”清·宋革。《摸鱼儿·莼》：“露葵生处春洲远，翠叶紫茎铺水。轻摘起，见说道，参差荇菜浑难比。”植物趣闻播报编辑莼菜的茎叶含有丰富的胶质，鲜墩细滑，与茭白、鲈鱼并称为“江南三大名菜”。 [16]食物营养成分播报编辑食物名称莼菜含量参考约每100克食物中的含量能量5 千卡蛋白质0.4 g水分99 g碳水化合物1 g膳食纤维1 g可溶性膳食纤维0.4 g不溶性膳食纤维0.6 g叶酸3 μgαE0.1 mg胡萝卜素29 μg钠2 mg镁2 mg磷5 mg钾2 mg钙4 mg锰0.02 mg铜0.02 mg锌0.2 mg维生素B2（核黄素）0.02 mg维生素E0.1 mg维生素K16 μg展开新手上路成长任务编辑入门编辑规则本人编辑我有疑问内容质疑在线客服官方贴吧意见反馈投诉建议举报不良信息未通过词条申诉投诉侵权信息封禁查询与解封©2024 Baidu 使用百度前必读 | 百科协议 | 隐私政策 | 百度百科合作平台 | 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是什么意思_beet的翻译_音标_读音_用法_例句_爱词霸在线词典首页翻译背单词写作校对词霸下载用户反馈专栏平台登录beet是什么意思_beet用英语怎么说_beet的翻译_beet翻译成_beet的中文意思_beet怎么读,beet的读音,beet的用法,beet的例句翻译人工翻译试试人工翻译翻译全文简明柯林斯牛津beetGRE英 [biːt]美 [biːt]释义n.甜菜; 甜菜根; 糖萝卜点击人工翻译，了解更多人工释义词态变化复数: beets;实用场景例句全部There sugar - beet plantation areas were expanded to 176000 hectares.他们的甜菜种植面积增加到176000公顷.《简明英汉词典》They talked endlessly about beet and cattle feed.他们就甜菜和牛饲料的话题谈个没完.《简明英汉词典》My face is always as red as a beet when I come out of the sauna.每次洗完桑拿,我的脸总是通红.《简明英汉词典》Beet tops are somewhat like spinach.甜菜叶子有点像菠菜.辞典例句Calcium is also necessary to prevent leakage of potassium during the aging of beet slices.甜菜薄片衰老时期,钙对于防止钾离子丧失,也极其必要.辞典例句The development of sodium absorption capacity by aging beet slices, however, does not require calcium.然而,随着甜菜薄片的衰老,要提高钠离子的吸收能力, 已经无需钙参与作用了.辞典例句He farmed his pickers to work in the beet fields.他出租他的摘棉工去甜菜地里干活.互联网The sugar beet is an entirely different kind of plant.糖用甜菜是一种完全不同的作物.互联网Initial Explore on the Inoculative Methods of Root Rot jn Sugar Beet.甜菜根腐病接种方法的初步探讨.互联网Cash crops are oil - bearing crops, sugar beet, hemp and so on.经济作物有油料、甜菜、麻类等.互联网Cash crops have beet, oilseeds, tobacco, medicinal herbs, hemp, cotton, and other.经济作物有甜菜、油料、烟叶、药材、麻、棉花等.互联网As far as the eye could seethe beet fields.极目远望,甜菜地一望无际.互联网The biological control progress of beet armyworm and the prospect were reviewed.本文综述了甜菜夜蛾生物防治进展以及对生物防治的展望.互联网The industrial crops are: ( sugar ) beet, flax, tobacco, and so on.经济作物有: 甜菜、亚麻、烤烟等.互联网Main Compositions: rose essence, azelaic acid, thyme leaf, beet.主要成份: 玫瑰精华、杜鹃花酸、百里香叶、甜菜.互联网收起实用场景例句英英释义Noun1. biennial Eurasian plant usually having a swollen edible root; widely cultivated as a food crop2. round red root vegetable收起英英释义释义词态变化实用场景例句英

The Health Benefits of Beets: Nutrition, Risks, and More

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Beets: Benefits, Nutrition, and Facts

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5 Health Benefits of Beets

Selene Yeager

Selene Yeager is a freelance health and fitness writer with over 25 years of experience. Her work has appeared across several national publications including Shape, O, the Oprah Magazine, Men’s Health, Women's Health, Marie Claire, Better Homes & Gardens, Good Housekeeping, Runner’s World, and Cosmopolitan.

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Updated on July 27, 2023

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Elizabeth Barnes, RDN

Medically reviewed by

Elizabeth Barnes, RDN

Elizabeth Barnes, MS, RDN, LDN, is a dietitian with a focus on treating clients with eating disorders and disordered eating to help them to mend their relationship with food and their bodies.

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Beets: Health Benefits, Nutrients, Preparation, and More

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The most common type of beet sold in grocery stores is Beta vulgaris, but there are many different varieties. They generally have an earthy, sweet taste that many people enjoy and are packed with nutrition.Beets come in many vivid colors, from deep red to bright purple. Research suggests that eating vegetables in a wide array of colors can be good for your health. Adding colorful beets to your diet can be a visually appealing way to pack some extra nutrition into your favorite dishes.Health BenefitsFrom reducing inflammation to improving heart health, beets provide many health benefits.Reduced InflammationThe stark red color of beets comes from compounds called betalains. Betalains have powerful antioxidant effects and can help reduce inflammation. Beets are also rich in nitrates, which reduce inflammation by removing harmful compounds from your bloodstream. This combination of betalains and nitrates makes beets a great choice for people with inflammatory conditions like rheumatoid arthritis or fibromyalgia. Heart ProtectionThe nitrates in beets don't just reduce inflammation, they also improve heart health. Nitrates have been shown to reduce high blood pressure. Beets are also naturally low in cholesterol and fat, which makes them a good option for people concerned about heart disease or stroke. Increased EnergyMitochondria are responsible for producing the energy your cells need to function. Studies have shown that the nitrates in beets help these cellular powerhouses function better. Some athletes even drink beet juice before exercising to improve their performance.NutritionBeets are a nutrient-dense root vegetable low in calories, fat, and cholesterol, making them a heart-healthy choice.Nutrients per ServingA single, half-cup serving of cooked beets contains:Calories: 37Fat: 0 gramsCholesterol: 0 milligramsSodium: 65 milligrams Carbohydrates: 8 gramsProtein: 1 gramWith two grams of fiber per serving, beets are primed to help keep your digestive system regular. Additionally, they're an excellent source of:Vitamin AVitamin CCalciumIron Things to Watch Out ForOne concern with eating beets is that eating a lot of beets may cause gout.Gout is an extremely painful condition caused by an increased uric acid level in your blood. The oxalates found in beets can increase your uric acid level, meaning that too many beets can lead to gout. To avoid this, stick to no more than a single half-cup serving of beets per day. Other recommendations for avoiding gout include drinking lots of water, eating lean meats and poultries, and keeping to a healthy weight.How to Prepare BeetsEvery part of the beet—from the stem to the bulb—is edible. If you're using the whole beet, be sure to wash it well before cooking to get rid of any fertilizers or dirt. You can peel the beet before cooking or eat it with the skin on. Beets have a distinctive, earthy flavor. If you've tried beets in the past and didn’t like them, you may need to experiment with different seasoning options to find your preferred way to eat them. They can be boiled, steamed, roasted, and prepared a variety of other ways. Beets can also be added to smoothies with other fruits and vegetables to help sweeten the taste.Other options for adding beets to your diet include:Mixing beets in with cottage cheeseAdding beets to a tossed saladBoiling beets with cabbage and hamPureeing beets with potatoes to make a healthy soupMixing beet greens into pastaTopping a veggie pizza with sliced beets Sources Update History ShareSOURCES:Cell Metabolism: "Dietary inorganic nitrate improves mitochondrial efficiency in humans."Consumer Reports: "Are Beets Good for You?"Hypertension: "Acute blood pressure lowering, vasoprotective, and antiplatelet properties of dietary nitrate via bioconversion to nitrite."Mayo Clinic: "Cut Disease Risk by Adding Color to Your Diet." Mayo Clinic: “Gout Diet: What’s Allowed, What’s Not.”Mayo Clinic: "Mayo Clinic Minute: It’s hard to beat the health benefits of beets."Medical Sport Science: "Dietary Nitrate and O2 Consumption During Exercise." Nutrients: "The Potential Benefits of Red Beetroot Supplementation in Health and Disease."Urological Research: “Calcium Oxalate Stone and Gout.”How we keep our content up to date:Our medical and editorial staff closely follow the health news cycle, new research, drug approvals, clinical practice guidelines and other developments to ensure our content receives appropriate and timely updates. 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Functional properties of beetroot (Beta vulgaris) in management of cardio-metabolic diseases | Nutrition & Metabolism | Full Text

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Functional properties of beetroot (Beta vulgaris) in management of cardio-metabolic diseases

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Published: 07 January 2020

Functional properties of beetroot (Beta vulgaris) in management of cardio-metabolic diseases

Parvin Mirmiran1, Zeinab Houshialsadat1, Zahra Gaeini1, Zahra Bahadoran1 & …Fereidoun Azizi2 Show authors

Nutrition & Metabolism

volume 17, Article number: 3 (2020)

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AbstractRed beetroot (Beta vulgaris), as a naturally occurring root vegetable and a rich source of phytochemicals and bioactive compounds, is known for its beneficial roles in the improvement of several clinical and pathologic outcome. Chronic and acute beetroot juice supplementation, as a cost-effective strategy, is proposed to hold promises in controlling diabetes and insulin hemostasis, blood pressure and vascular function, renal health and the possible effect on microbiome abundance. The secondary outcome and physiological response of microbiome abundance modulation included the non- significant fluctuation of systolic and diastolic blood pressures. Also, some studies have suggested a reno-protective property of beetroot juice that is associated with the reduction of mortality rate and favorable changes in kidney’s functional parameters among patients with renal disorders. Similarly, it is shown that the persistent consumption of beetroot juice effectively postpones the postprandial glycemic response and decreases the blood glucose peak. The significant blood pressure lowering effect has been seen among normotensive subjects, which tend to be more considerable among hypertensive individuals and progressive among overweight adults.Within this context, this review aims to provide a comprehensive overview on the therapeutic applications of beetroot juice in metabolic disorders and theirs underlying mechanisms. Despite the inconsistencies in the set of results from the reviewed studies, there is no doubt that further contributing factors must be investigated more deeply in future studies.

IntroductionBeetroot, an annual or biennial cultivated form of Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris conditiva, includes a variety of edible taproots originated from the Middle East, which has been spreading worldwide, from the Americas to Europe and Asia [1, 2]. As a rich and nutritious source, it is believed to hold health-promotional characteristics, anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory effects [3], anti-carcinogenic and anti-diabetic activities and hepato-protective, hypotensive and wound healing properties [4, 5]. Therefore, beetroot is currently being applied as a functional ingredient in the development of various meals [6, 7]. It is notable that most recent studies on beetroot supplementation, especially those addressing its hypotensive and ergogenic properties, emphasized the critical role of inorganic NO3 on the clinical effect of this vegetable and its byproducts.So far, various interventional studies from selective literature have explored and addressed the implications of beetroot and its byproducts on systolic and diastolic blood pressures, vascular and endothelial function, insulin and glucose responses within the glycemic homeostatic context, and the abundance of microbiome. The overall results were ultimately found to be mostly inconsistent. Also, the hypotensive and hypoglycemic effect of beetroot juice consumption had not been firmly attributed to one and major responsible mechanism; such analytic vision was seen across microbial and renal studies as well.This comprehensive review provided a detailed, reliable proof on the treatment of the elevated renal parameters including renal resistive index and arterial stiffness with beetroot and its components. Additionally, within this review we aim to provide an updated summery of beetroot consumption and its ultimate effects on blood glucose, blood pressure and microbiome levels, vascular and renal function and therefore, incidence of metabolic syndrome. Findings from this review are useful in addressing mechanisms involved in key metabolic areas and a wrap up on different aspects of each study.The achievement of this goal paves the way of taking further pharmacological and nutritional advantages in the prevention and treatment levels and bring new perspectives into such multidisciplinary field. With the constant evolving matter of science, this review is one of its kind in the past few years that reported the metabolic effect of beetroot juice on different populations.Nutrients and bioactive compounds of beetrootBeetroot is consist of multiple biologically active phytochemicals including betalains [8] (e.g., betacyanins and betaxanthins), flavonoids, polyphenols, Saponins [8] and inorganic Nitrate (NO3); it is also a rich source of diverse minerals such as potassium, sodium, phosphorous, calcium, magnesium, copper, iron, zinc and manganese [9]. It is commonly consumed in form of supplemental juice, powder, bread, gel, boiled, oven-dried, pickled, pureed or jam-processed across different food cultures [1, 10, 11]. As shown in Table 1, 100 mL of beetroot juice is comprised of 95 Kcal energy, 22.6 g carbohydrates, 0.70 g proteins, 0.16 g total lipids, 0.91 g total dietary fiber and 12 g total sugars. As such, the micro nutritional composition of 100 mL beetroot juice is estimated as 8.8 g sucrose, 0.86 g fructose, and 2.5 g glucose [8].

Table 1 Nutrient composition of beetroot and its byproducts (per 100 g or L)Full size tableMoreover, various commercial organic and conventional beetroot juices, are reported to contain total sugar, vitamin C and total flavonoids within a range of 1.73–7.85 g, 10.75–20.36 mg, and 2.02–2.36 mg (per 100 g), respectively [12]. Betalains make up to ~ 70–100% of phenolic composition of beetroot, limited to 0.8–1.3 g/L of fresh beetroot juice (about 60% betacyanins and 40% betaxanthins) [1].In fact, beetroot is classified as one of the ten plants with the highest antioxidant activity [8]. It is believed to be the main commercial source of betalains, as in concentrated forms, powder, or natural dyes in gelatins, confectionery, dairy, meat, and poultry derived products [8]. According to Baião et al. flavonoids undergo changes following vegetable processing while polyphenols remain active after in vitro digestion, yet found in the highest ratio in beetroot gel than other conformations including beetroot juice [8].NO3 contributes as one of the most important inorganic compounds within beetroot, the content of which is reported to vary 10-fold between single varieties [1]. NO3 concentration was said to be within a range of 388 ± 19.9 to 3968 ± 252 mg/L among commercial beetroot juice and 393 ± 2.23 to 2721 ± 54.4 mg/L among commercial beetroot powders. Although nitrate is relatively inert, it is yet capable of transforming status into NO2 through bacterial enzymatic pathways (NO3 reductase), which subsequently is non- enzymatically decomposed to NO in the oral cavity. The classification of the beetroot organ in terms of NO3 concentration from highest to lowest is as petiole, leaf, stem, root, tuber, bulb, fruit, and seed, respectively [8].Additionally, the oxalic acid constitution of beetroot is relatively abundant [13]; average content in raw beetroot and beetroot juice equals to 94.6–141.6 mg/100 g and 300–525 mg/L, respectively. Oxalic acid, as a metal ion chelator, promotes the formation of nephroliths, and therefore, is considered as a health concern especially in patients predisposed to the kidney disease [1, 14].With the challenge of formulating biologically safe, NO3− rich beetroot supplements, various preparation methods such as beetroot juice freeze-drying for the production of beetroot powder, have initially been introduced. Red round thin beetroot chips and pseudoplastic beetroot gels are also of the most recently invented and functional forms of beetroot supplements. Beetroot chips are known to contain the highest energy content (Kcal), carbohydrate and total sugar, the highest value of Total Antioxidant Potential (TAP) and the lowest value of Total Phenolic Content (TPC), flavonoids and Saponin level. The pseudoplastic gel, as a mean of NO3 administration to athletes, is believed to contain the highest protein and lowest lipid content, ranking beetroot gel not as the most commonly used but most effective formulation comparing to other byproducts [8].Despite the industrial food exploitation of red beet, sugar beet is grown commercially for sugar production due to the high content of sucrose [1]. The processing of the sugar depends on the nitrogen availability, especially in the early stages of growth [15, 16].Effects of beetroot on blood pressure and vascular functionThe awareness regarding the impact of acute and chronic beetroot juice consumption on blood pressure and vascular function by clinical studies is rapidly rising (Tables 2 and 3). Within this review, we investigated a total of 25 human studies. The number of studies with emphasis on the blood pressure lowering properties among normotensive and hypertensive individuals in different health states, overwhelms those contradicting this outcome. The role of nitrate- nitrite pathway and that of bioactive compounds are highlighted.

Table 2 Chronic effects of beetroot on blood pressure and vascular functionFull size table

Table 3 Acute effects of beetroot on blood pressure and vascular functionFull size tableFor the first time, Webb et al. performed an open-label cross-over study in healthy volunteers to support the blood pressure lowering properties of a NO3 concentrated beetroot juice [14]. This result was confirmed by a meta-analysis of 12 randomized clinical trials by Siervo et al., which highlighted the cardio-protective properties of beetroot juice supplementation in accordance to a significant effect size on systolic blood pressure (SBP) (mean difference = − 4.5, 95% CI = − 6.4, − 2.5) [44]. This study investigated the acute hypotensive properties of beetroot juice, and highlighted the significant association between a daily dose of inorganic NO3 (as a biomarker of NO availability, provided as sodium NO3 or beetroot juice) and changes in SBP [44].Additionally, the ingestion of white-beetroot bread (~ 4.5 mg betacyanin/100 g) and red-beetroot bread (~ 27.3 mg betacyanin/100 g), with equivalent doses of NO3, is believed to decrease blood pressure to the same extent, affirming a positive linkage among NO3 content and the observed blood pressure lowering effect of beetroot [45]. Beetroot juice consumption was also shown to reduce blood pressure, improve endothelial function, and dramatically increase the plasma NO2 level and systemic NO production [38]. In healthy subjects, consumption of 500 mL beetroot juice substantially decreased blood pressure in proportion to an increased peak of plasma NO2 level [46].In contrary to the most common conclusion, emphasizing the exclusive role of NO3 on the hypotensive effect of beetroot, a recent meta-analysis highlighted the potential NO3 independent blood pressure lowering effect and postulated a dose-dependent relationship between inorganic NO3 and its hypotensive effect [47]. There are other studies in agreement with this investigation, which have indicated a similar microvascular, vasodilator property following the consumption of NO3- rich beetroot juice, compared to a NO3- depleted placebo, within a period of 24 days [28]; hence, it is suggested that bioactive components other than NO3, may mediate dilatory responses among both beverages [6].Hypotensive effect of beetroot seems to be highly influenced by physiological and medical status. Beetroot juice administration was found to exert a much stronger effect on blood pressure in hypertensive compared to normotensive subjects, which can be explained by the rate of erythrocyte xanthine oxidase expression (XOR - Erythrocytic Xanthine Oxidoreductase, an enzyme involved in reduction of NO2 in active NO) in hypertensive states [40].As a counterpoint, despite elevations in plasma NO2 concentration, no significant decrease of blood pressure has been admitted in diabetic patients supplemented with 250 mL beetroot juice for 2 weeks. The reason for this discrepant result is unclear but may reflect the study methodology, related to concomitant medications or aberrant vascular physiology in diabetic patients [28].Similarly, the study of Ghosh et al. on 40 hypertensive pregnant women extended our findings on the efficacy of dietary nitrate supplementation in form of 70 mL beetroot juice comparing to control. It was concluded that the ingestion of a single dose of dietary nitrate, does not provide a considerable difference between the two groups at any time points. Although the acute ingestion led to an elevation of diastolic blood pressure (DBP), this measurement returned to the baseline value by the first 24 h and the subsequent first week and therefore, no significant differences in plasma nitrate or nitrite level could be observed. It was however confirmed that a considerable correlation exists among alterations of plasma nitrite conversion and concentration rates, and blood pressure responses, which was consistent with the previous biochemical data and other modalities. With that said, interventions involving dietary nitrate may only appear effective if the individual is capable of undergoing nitrate to nitrite bioconversion or assimilating abilities [40].The unsustain blood pressure lowering properties, is another substantial topic. A randomized parallel, clinical trial by Jajja et al. among overweight older adults, revealed a progressive decline in SBP measurements following a 3 week beetroot juice supplementation, which returned to the baseline 1 week post-intervention; accordingly, it was concluded that continuous beetroot supplementation might be necessary to sustain beneficial cardiovascular effects [31].The ultrasound flow-mediated dilatation measurement (FMD) and aortic pulse wave velocity (aPWV) were the primary methods of investigating the potential short and long term effects of beetroot consumption on vascular function. A 6 week supplementation with NO3- rich beetroot juice led to a modest improvement of FMD, the aPWV and the augmentation index, and measures of arterial stiffness [45]. Another newly published meta-analysis of clinical studies, reported a significant pooled effect size on FMD following consumption of beetroot juice (standardized mean difference = 0.30, 95% CI = 0.05–0.54), the result of which was similar to impact of pure inorganic NO3 (administrated as sodium or potassium NO3) (standardized mean difference = 0.54, 95% CI = 0.21–0.86) [48]. Notably, vascular responsive features to beetroot supplementation can be affected by vascular aging due to a substantial decrease in the NO3 to NO2 bioconversion capacity; Siervo et al., in a recent meta-analysis, assessed the effect of high NO3 beetroot juice on blood pressure variability (24-h ambulatory BP monitoring) and reported a more significant decrease in nocturnal SBP variability in subjects aged < 65 years compared to the older group (≥ 65 y) [49].In contrary, a 7 day treatment with high- NO3 concentrated beetroot juice seemed to have no significant effect on resting or ambulatory blood pressure, aPWV and arterial distensibility among overweight and obese older adults; the plasma concentration of asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA), an endogenous inhibitor of NO synthesis and a novel risk marker of cardiovascular disease, were additionally remained unaffected by beetroot supplementation [25].Whether the NO3 is responsible for the leading, beneficial effects of beetroot, can be looked at as a controversial topic. The physiological effects of beetroot is suggested to have a direct relationship with its NO3 content beyond other bioactive compounds including betacyanins (Fig. 1); mechanisms underlying the hypotensive properties of beetroot is also most likely attributed to an enhancement of NO bioavailability as a result of increased non-enzymatic reduction of NO3 into NO2 and NO [36, 50]. The pharmacokinetics of NO3 are suggested to differ based on the delivery vehicle [51, 52], in which beetroot was used as in the vast majority of clinical studies, investigating the hypotensive effect of NO3 [26, 31, 35, 50,51,52]. The non- significant blood pressure lowering effect of NO3- depleted beetroot compared to NO3- rich beetroot [32, 41], may imply the key and potential role of NO3 versus other beetroot’s nutraceuticals. It is reported that the hypotensive properties of beetroot are proportional to the high turnover of NO3/NO2 and cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) plasma level, as the most sensitive indicator of NO bioactivity [14, 38]. Additionally, the blood pressure alterations associated with the consumption of beetroot juice and beetroot-enriched bread were correlated with urinary NO3/NO2 levels [50]. In a similar instance, there is a considerable trend between the changes in SBP, plasma NO2, the reduction of peak and increase of blood pressure and plasma NO2 [40].

Fig. 1The possible hypotensive mechanisms of beetroot juice in regards to NO3 and bioactive compounds; NO3 in converted to NO via the NO3 - NO2- NO pathway. NO decreases the population of acidogenic cariogenic bacteria, increases oral pH, reduces the vascular stiffness and ROS production, and subsequently, improves the endothelial function. Decreased ROS production along with increased activity of antioxidant enzymes, reduce the oxidative stress. NO also activates the SGC- cGMP pathway, which decreases the renovascular resistance and promotes the renal function. NO directly decreases the angiotensin II type I receptor gene expression and produces NO2- S- nitrosothiol via the increased S - nitrosylation of angiotensin II type I receptor, which together reduce the NADPH oxidase activity and therefore, improve the renal blood flow and vascular relaxation and change the Na/ water retention. Other bioactive compounds (e.g. polyphenols, betalains, etc.) reduce NF-κB activities, suppress Cox- 2, reduce the inflammatory markers, improved the endothelial function and therefore, reduced the blood pressure. NO Nitric Oxide, ROS Reactive Oxygen Species, SGC Soluble Guanylate Cyclase, cGMP Cyclic Guanosine Monophosphate, NADPH Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate, NF-κB Nuclear Factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cellsFull size imageThe NO3-mediated hypotensive effect of beetroot is highlighted by the elevation of XOR enzyme expression level and XOR-dependent NO2 reductase activity post-ingestion of beetroot juice, and the promised hypotensive effect is disrupted by allopurinol, an XOR inhibitor [40]. The reduction of blood pressure following beetroot consumption is believed to suppress and interrupt the salivary NO3 uptake. Various factors such as smoking (increasing salivary thiocyanate) [24], use of antibacterial mouthwash (reduction/ removal of oral NO3- reducing bacteria) [47, 53,54,55] and inorganic iodide supplementation (salivary NO3 uptake reduction) [20] interfere with NO3 enter-salivary circulation, a rate-limiting step for dietary NO3 metabolism. Evidences suggest this procedure to consequently disturb cardio-protective aspects of dietary NO3.Altogether, based on the current prevailing perception, NO3 and its subsequent NO product are mainly responsible for cardio-protective and hypotensive effects of beetroot supplements; while so, additive or synergistic effects of other bioactive compounds such as vitamin C, polyphenols and carotenoids should not be neglected.Effects of beetroot on glucose and insulin homeostasisThe potential hypoglycemic effect of beetroot juice across healthy individuals and patients with various disorders have been studied previously, out of which 5 human and 2 animal studies were investigated in this review (Table 4). Significant reduction of blood glucose level and the positive impact on the glycemic and insulin responses were reported (P-value= 0.004), among which multiple mechanisms and highlighted role of bioactive compounds (e.g. polyphenols, flavonoids, nitrate etc.) were critical. Due to the contribution of the lipid profile as a complementary factor in the incidence of glycemic abnormalities, this topic was also briefly evaluated in conjunction within this section.

Table 4 Effects of beetroot on glucose-insulin homeostasis, lipid profiles and oxidative stressFull size tableAn observational study was conducted on the phytochemical constituent of 225 mL beetroot juice among 16 healthy adults and related postprandial timing. Three samples of 50 g available carbohydrates, in the form of beetroot juice were administered, with lemon in the first sample, sucrose, fructose, glucose in the second sample (matched control drink) and glucose in the third sample, respectively. This assessment found a positive correlation on both glycemic and insulin responses in the first sample over the two beverages. The glycemic response post- beetroot juice consumption via the first and second drinks was shown to be significantly lower than the third drink. Considerably lower insulin response was elicited between beetroot juice and the control drink that remained non- significant. In this respect, it is suggested that polyphenol- rich beetroot juice might be responsible for the late rise in the early phases of postprandial glucose or insulin responses [48].Collected data from a recent study on 30 healthy participants outlined further decreasing trend of blood glucose level by 34.5% following longer-term ingestion of a 10% beetroot juice solution [48] within 4 weeks, comparing to the baseline and washout period; whereas such difference was not present within 2 weeks of the interventional phase. With significant assimilation to the hypotensive effect, it can be said that persistent consumption of beetroot juice might be necessary on the maintenance of sustainable impacts of blood glucose and insulin responses [49].The administration of 270 mL beetroot juice among healthy adults in a randomized cross-over study, suspended the postprandial glycemic response and lowered the sustainability and peak of blood glucose level; therefore in contrast to a sugar-matched control drink, appeared useful [56].Beals et al. have discussed the augmenting interference of concurrent dietary fiber-rich- beetroot juice and 25 g of glucose (75 g total carbohydrate load) among obese and non-obese individuals with glucose tolerance. Participants were supplemented with 500 mL beetroot solution (17 mmol nitrate and 25 g glucose) at baseline, glucose at time laps of 5, 45, 60 and 90 min, glucose solution and insulin at 10, 20,30 and 120 min. It was eventuated that the inhibition of nitrate reductase activity did not only reduce the desire of metabolic responses to beetroot juice combined with glucose but also promoted insulin resistance (푃 = 0.009) and concealed insulin sensitivity within obese individuals. Unlikely, the co-ingestion of glucose and beetroot juice led to a higher elevation of blood glucose concentration in obese than non-obese adults at 60 and 90 min (푃 = 0.004). It was, therefore, obtained that obese adults with a higher risk of developing insulin resistance, may benefit from nitrate-rich foods [57].Among studies compatible with the blood-glucose-lowering effect of Beta vulgaris in this review, multiple mechanisms were suggested to be responsible (Fig. 2). Some papers emphasized the critical role of bioactive compounds [48, 58] including the action of ethanol via an ethanolic extraction of beetroot juice (EEBT) [59]. The nitrite- nitrate pathway, taking place in the oral cavity by the commensal bacteria, was also introduced [57]. Other mechanisms are including the modification of intracellular signal transduction as a major mechanism of reducing blood glucose by foods and hormonal activities, inhibition of α-amylase and α-glucosidase and increase in paraoxonase 1 (PON1) [60]. The increasing trend of serum cortisol level post- beetroot consumption, as a stress hormone and leading factor in the elevation of gluconeogenesis, is coupled with the reduced glucose concentration, as well. This phenomenon can be related to either the Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) secretion or the mode of action at the adrenal cortex level [49]. Therefore, the intake of beetroot juice decreased the blood glucose level comparing to the control and placebo beverages, the reason of which is postulated to be regarding the polyphenol, betanins and neobetanin, as a betanin degradation product, ethanol content, nitrite- nitrate pathway or the inhibition of hormonal reductase activity.

Fig. 2The effect of NO3 and other bioactive compounds within beetroot juice on regulation of insulin and glucose homeostasis; NO enhanced the B-cells viability and pancreatic blood flow, which in turn increases the insulin secretion. It also increases the Glut- 4 gene expression and translocation from cytosol to membrane in the adipose tissue and skeletal muscle. This enhancement, along with the activation of AMPK signaling, improves the insulin sensitivity. Reduced carbohydrate digestion and intestinal glucose absorption suppresses the postprandial glucose response as well. The amelioration of insulin sensitivity and insulin secretion, along with the suppression of postprandial glucose response, correspondingly, regulates the insulin and glucose homeostasis. NO Nitric Oxide, AMPK Adenosine Monophosphate-activated Protein KinaseFull size imageIn addition to the glycemic controlling properties of beetroot juice, some articles highlighted the beneficial effect of this beverage on lipid profile and its parameters (TC, TG, HDL, and LDL), which is directly related to the incidence of T2DM. One randomized, double- blind study in this regard investigated the acute, 2 h post-consumption (2HPP) effect of beetroot juice on plasma glucose and lipid status. Among the related parameters TG was only revealed to be notably higher in the intervention group at pre-treatment level. While so, the 2HPP was shown to be lower than that pre-administration of beetroot juice comparing to the control. The lipid profile parameters decreased at post-treatment level, and all parameters but HDL had significantly lower values than those in the control group. It, however, remained upon discussion whether these implications are to any extent related to α- lipoic acid and antioxidant content of Beta vulgaris or other factors involved [58].An animal study on the blood-glucose-lowering effect of beetroot juice extended our knowledge in an STZ (Streptozotocin) - induced diabetic rat model. In this study, animals have been treated with either 400 mg/ kg p.o. (orally) Ethanolic Extract of Beetroot Juice or 5 mg/ Kg p.o. Glibenclamide. It was implied that the effect of Glibenclamide on TG and cholesterol level was comparable with that in EEBT- treated animals. In fact, administration of EEBT potentially reduced the serum levels of cholesterol and TG in comparison to diabetic control rats, which is hypothesized to be regarding a long exposure (21 days) to EEBT solution [59].Altogether, these studies raised evidence in favor of blood glucose lowering effect of beetroot and beetroot juice in particular. It can be implied that beetroot juice is able to effectively lessen the impact of insulin resistance in a drug- comparable manner.Effects of beetroot on microbiomeThus far, data and information regarding the impact of Beta vulgaris on gut microbiome and salivary microflora is limited, yet the association with metabolic dysfunction cannot be neglected. Within this context it was primarily indicated that dietary NO3 supplementation could alter the salivary microbiome, an outcome that has been perused through investigation of 6 human and 7 animal studies in this review.Vanhatalo et al. have performed one of the leading human studies on the connection between the nitrate-responsive oral microbiome and nitric oxide (NO) homeostasis, which have revealed a positive relationship between nitrate- nitrite pathway on microbiome action and salivary flow rate. Nevertheless, it is still in doubt, how the abundance of known NO3- reducing bacteria such as Fusobacterium nucleatum, Prevotella melaninogenica and Leptorichia buccalis affects nitrate response. NO biomarkers, including the blood pressure and arterial stiffness, have been used to express the results. The NO3 and NO2 values were seen to be significantly higher in the beetroot juice supplemented group than the control. The results have also explained no considerable SBP and DBP modulations comparing to the baseline, notwithstanding a non- significant difference to be present among older subjects, due to the higher NO2 concentration in that group following beetroot juice consumption. The high baseline abundance of Fusobacterium nucleatum subsp. vincentii and nucleatum among other oral bacteria reduced blood pressure as a physiological response to beetroot juice supplementation as the phyla that possess a non-significant lower availability following beetroot juice consumption comparing to placebo [61]. Based on this article, the chronic ingestion of inorganic NO3 not only increases a proportion of the oral microbiome including Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes and Fusobacteria, but also serves to change the relative abundance of a few, but not all, NO3- reducers. This alteration is positive in Neisseria and Rothia reducers, due to the high NO bioavailability, as a probable cardiovascular health promoter, and negative among Prevotella and Veillonella. Authors concluded that dietary NO3 supplementation could alter the salivary microbiome in young and old normotensive individuals [61].The consumption of nitrate-rich Beta vulgaris also increase the consequent rate of NO bioconversion and mean pH (from 7.0 to 7.5). Assuming bioconversion to occur in the mouth [62], it is suggestive that this process may play a critical role in host defense [63, 64], lower prevalence of metabolic dysfunction and caries in the oral cavity through acidification- preventing properties of human saliva and therefore, shift the composition of the microbiome [62]. It is well established that the administration of NO3 supplementation as beetroot juice enhances cardio-protective and cardio-enhancing properties [65,66,67]. In one study, 46 healthy participants were treated with 100 mL of beetroot juice or placebo, (each corresponding to 400 mg and 2 mg NO3). Collected data indicated that the salivary nitrate concentration among beetroot juice and placebo consuming groups both had elevated, yet the range in beetroot juice consumers reached more significant. Consequently, it was highlighted that the baseline value reached the maximum amount within day 8 of beetroot juice and day 15 of placebo consumption [62].Since the NO bioconversion is of high importance in the metabolic function, the second assessment was performed on the total NO bioavailability and bioconversions in the mouth, as a commensal microflora- dependent procedure. Based on the measurements, the ultimate levels were detected within the first 2 h subsequent to each drink, comparing to the basal mean levels of salivary NO. NO concentration was found to decline among the beetroot juice consuming group and back to basal levels straight after the juice consumption period, suggesting consistent ingestion for the determination of antimicrobial effect and other biological functions of NO to be required [62].The fermentation of beetroot juice has recently sparked interest as an evolving strategy that is being investigated across several human and animal subjects. One of such efforts is a study on Lactic acid bacteria fermentation, where three phylus of Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus rhamnnosus, and Lactobacillus delbrueckii sb. were cultivated on pasteurized beetroot juice. The comparison of fresh and probiotic beetroot juice, presented a slight increase in the protein values from 3.74 to 3.77%, the acidity of the samples from 0.49 to 0.78% and total antioxidant activity and capacity [68].This conclusion was in agreement with a recent study among animal models, investigating the administration of lacto-fermented beetroot juice (FBJ) alone or along with M-nitroso-N-methyl urea (MNU- as a harmful factor). The results have shown Bifidobacterium to be the most stable microorganism that almost equally colonized the gut epithelium. It also indicated that the mutagen MNU is incapable of affecting microorganism adherence to the gut epithelium. MNU led to various outcomes depending on the bacterial phylus and the type of intervention [69].Fresh and lacto-fermented beetroot juices are distinguished by the high anti-carcinogenic and anti-mutagenic potentials [70,71,72]. Betacyanin components of FBJ, betanidin and betanin overwhelms that in the fresh juice, which is consist of betanin as a dominating compound, instead of betanidin [73]. This study displayed an increase in the antioxidant capacity of blood serum in groups administered with FBJ [69].The same author has studied the effect of probiotic Lactobacillus casei 0920 and Lactobacillus brevis 0944 fermented beetroot juice (beetroot juice as a lactic acid bacteria carrier). Accordingly, it was concluded that the consumption of fermented juice containing live lactic acid bacteria could positively change the count of intestinal microflora, its metabolic activity, and enzymes involved in the process of carcinogenesis including β-glucosidase, β-glucuronidase, and β-galactosidase. In other words, the daily administration of fermented beetroot juice reduced the enzymatic activity to 75.4, 53.6, and 59.5 U/g, respectively. The activity of β – glucuronidase was also decreased subsequent to the administration of 3.0 and 6 mL of the fermented beetroot juice per day (by 26 and 28%, respectively) [74].Therefore, it was elucidated that chronic and regular ingestion of fermented beetroot juice may lead to the sustaining intestinal microbial ecosystem and modifying the metabolic activity to reduce the risk of food intolerance related diseases [74].Effects of beetroot on kidney functionDespite the positive hypertensive and hyperglycemic effect of beetroot juice, a limited number of studies have acknowledged the reno-protective properties associations with specific renal parameters. To address the key areas of this topic in our comprehensive review, 6 selective literatures, 3 human and 3 animal studies, were summarized and reported. Beetroot juice consumption and its ultimate outcomes in this section, appeared more beneficially among animal models.In this regard, one and the main human study on stages 2 to 5 of Chronic Kidney Disease patients (CKD II-IV any degree of decrease in the renal function) by Kemmner et al., suggested the administration of nitrate donor beetroot juice to a nitrate load of 300 mg across 9 patients to increase (NO) concentration and elevate the renal resistive index (RRI) as prognostic markers for cardiovascular mortality [39]. This outcome was more vivid among CKD patients that faced a reduction of renal function and elevation of arterial stiffness, with Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR) values below normal of 90 mL/min/m2. This decreased value was primarily caused by hypertensive or diabetic nephropathy, both as causal factors or the subsequent results of the failure. Comparing to the control, the serum creatinine, GFR and serum potassium level did not alter significantly following beetroot juice ingestion, which in case of potassium, also remained about persistent comparing to placebo [39].With that said, an animal intervention has investigated the beneficial contribution of either beetroot juice or nutraceutical beetroot juice in the treatment of Gentaciamin-nephrotoxicity- induced rats. It was suggested that beetroot juice with prophylactic perspectives actively supported the renal system to overcome the adverse effects of Gentamicin (GM)'s primary and secondary reactive metabolites, resulting from the toxicant-induced damage. Therefore, consumption of beetroot- based beverages depicted positive implications by increasing the level of Superoxide Dismutase (as a primary antioxidant enzyme), and Catalase (involved in a detoxification procedure), while decreasing NO (with a controversial role in renal system), and oxidative stress, all as renal tissue-specific markers. Similarly, urea and creatinine content have lowered, while the protein profile of beetroot- based beverage accelerated, due to the action of bioactive compounds like betacyanins and betaxanthin [75].Several protective strategies have been introduced to hold effective reno-protective implications. The blood pressure lowering effect via the action of Guanylyl Cyclases and cGMP, and subsequent nitrate- nitrite pathway of the facultative bacteria [76], a nitrate- mediated reduction of renal oxidative stress via decreasing the NADH oxidase activity and angiotensin II receptor (signals that attenuate angiotensin II-mediated renal arteriolar contraction) [77, 78] are of all conclusions drawn to explain the mechanism of action.An animal study investigated the advantage of beta- vulgaris ethanol extract (BVEE) with potent antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and reno-protective properties in the treatment of GM- induced nephrotoxicity, modulation of renal dysfunction, oxidative stress, inflammation and amelioration of histological damage in rats. The administration of BVEE and GM- treatment subsequently, substantiated a significant suppressing effect on the elevation of urea, uric acid, total protein and creatinine in a dose-dependent manner [79].BVEE beverage (250 and 500 mg/kg, p.o) was also suggested to be practical on kidney lipid peroxidation factors. The activity level of catalase, as an important antioxidant enzymes, was reduced by 27.97% following GM treatment, and notably increased by 83.92 and 92.62%, respectively, following the administration of 250 and 500 mg/kg BVEE. Similar trend was present for NP- SH content (non- protein sulfhydryl- for the measurement of renal non- protein sulfhydryl); a reduction of 37.94% following 85 mg/kg GM treatment was present, comparing to 71 and 81.71% increase in 250 and 500 mg/kg BVEE, respectively. The total protein content of GM treated animals was decreased by 71.46% in comparison with a dose dependent increase in pretreated groups of 250 mg/kg and 500 mg/kg BVEE by 37.35 and 43.74%, respectively [79].The data and findings here confirmed the ameliorating effect of Beta vulgaris as a beneficial additive treatment on kidney’s functional parameters, reducing the progressive rate of renal disease, and subsequently mortality in high risk groups including hypertensive CKD and diabetic nephropathy patients. It however remains to be investigated whether the decreasing effect over RRI values and blood pressure is ascribed to supplementation with the vasodilator- dietary nitrate or potent antioxidant, anti-apoptosis and anti-inflammatory properties possess by betacyanin components including betanin and betanin. It is upon discussion that BVEE treatment improves the extent of structural damage and decreases inflammatory infiltration in renal tubules through the reduction of oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis in the kidney.Potential drug interaction and adverse effectsThere is limited evidence in regards to the adverse effects and tolerance issues of beetroot juice and its components. Exclusive number of studies reported major negative implications associated with the consisting bioactive compounds, out of which, 5 studies were assessed in our review.Beeturia, urea discoloration or excretion of red/ pink urine following beetroot ingestion occurs due to the presence of un-metabolized betalain pigments in the urine and has been reported in 10–14% of Shepherd’s study population [17]. It is a strong, though benign effect that had been stated by most of the participants of previous studies as well. In other words, short term and long term treatment with beetroot juice were well tolerated by the subjects. This is a confirmation on a safe administrating strategy of beetroot through acute and chronic phases [18].It is partly evident that a 5 days administration of betalain- rich beetroot juice (25 and 100 mg∙kg∙bm − 1), markedly inhibited NF-κB DNA-binding activity in renal damage- induced rats and significantly suppressed Cyclooxygenase 2 (Cox- 2) expression in vitro by nearly 97%. This revealed a more significant anti-inflammatory effect than many rival synthetic drugs including Ibuprofen, Vioxx and Celebrex [4]. It is also proven that a 28 days administration of beetroot juice (250 mg or 500 mg∙kg∙bm − 1), inhibits NF-κB DNA binding activity across nephrotoxic rats in a dose-dependent manner. Therefore, an alternative here to synthetically manufactured medications, including Non- steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAIDs), is to shift towards natural resources and additional treatments [4].The potential interaction of NO3- rich beetroot juice with phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitors and consequent severe hypotension, is another consideration. Beneficial properties of beetroot can be profoundly affected by medications imposing undesirable interaction with metabolism and the ultimate metabolic pathways of NO3/ NO2; as such, the hypotensive effect of orally ingested NO2 is proposed to be abolished by esomeprazole, a proton pump inhibitor [18].Beetroot itself takes crucial part in drug metabolism and pharmacological treatment; the carotenoid content is said to be involved in Xenobiotic function and metabolism. The interference of Betalain with a broad spectrum of anti- inflammations properties and the pro-inflammatory signaling agent especially the Nuclear Factor-Kappa B (NF-κB) cascade is taken into account as an alternative of therapeutic medications with fewer adverse effects [4].Cytochrome P450 (CYP450) is known to be an active transporter in drug metabolism. This hemeprotein, with potent vasoconstriction properties, and its metabolite 20-Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (20-HETE) are critical in regulation of renal, pulmonary and cardiac function [80]. To the best of our knowledge, there are no studies in regards to the direct effect of beetroot and its byproducts on CYP450, however, NO, as an important beetroot component, was revealed to mediate the inflammatory- induced down- regulation of CYP450 and therefore, inhibit the conversion of CYP450 to 20-HETE. Also, active components including polyphenols, flavonoids and anthocyanins possess a similar inhibitory response in a comparable manner to other CYP450 inhibitors. Therefore, the food- drug and drug- food interactions along with the dose and duration of drug intake come back into focus.Subsequently, it is important to ascertain the probable interactions between beetroot juice and various supplements of proven ergogenic effects such as caffeine, creatinine, β-alanine, and sodium bicarbonate, and assure the possible beneficial impacts [7].With accordance to the high oxalic acid constitution of beetroot, comparing to other vegetables and fruits (400–600 mg/100 g fresh weight) [1], natural beetroot- based supplements, are not presently anticipating major negative health outcomes related to beetroot juice bioactive components. Therefore, it is unlikely to be a risk to human health in the short term.Considering the public interest to ergogenic and cardio-protective effects of beetroot supplementation, future clinical studies are required to evaluate the long-term efficacy and safety of beetroot dietary intervention in health and disease states.ConclusionAvailable data supported the health-promotional properties of beetroot and its byproducts, as a potential therapeutic treatments for various metabolic disorders including hypertension, diabetes, insulin resistance and kidney dysfunction. In human studies to date, beetroot supplementation has been reported to reduce systolic and diastolic blood pressure, inhibit platelet aggregation, improve vascular and endothelial function, reduce blood glucose and improve insulin homeostasis, and possess reno-protective properties. Beetroot contains high concentration of phytochemicals and essential nutrients and is abundant in inorganic NO3. Bioactive compounds are believed to play crucial roles within the mechanistic pathways and be responsible for the promising clinical effects.

Availability of data and materials

Not Applicable.

AbbreviationsaPWV:

Aortic Pulse Wave Velocity

BMI:

Body Mass Index

BP:

Blood Pressure

CKD:

Chronic Kidney Disease

CYP450:

Cytochrome P450

DBP:

Diastolic Blood Pressure

FBS:

Fasting Blood Sugar

HDL:

High-Density Lipoprotein

HETE-20:

20-Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid

LDL:

Low-Density Lipoprotein

NO:

Nitric oxide

NO2

Nitrite

NO3

Nitrate

SBP:

Systolic Blood Pressure

T2DM:

Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

TC:

Total Cholesterol

TG:

Triglyceride

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Download referencesAcknowledgementsThe authors would like to express their appreciation to the staff of the Research Institute for Endocrine Science.FundingThis work was not supported by any funding agency.Author informationAuthors and AffiliationsNutrition and Endocrine Research Center, Research Institute for Endocrine Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, No. 24, Sahid-Erabi St, Yemen St, Chamran Exp, Tehran, IranParvin Mirmiran, Zeinab Houshialsadat, Zahra Gaeini & Zahra BahadoranEndocrine Research Center, Research Institute for Endocrine Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, IranFereidoun AziziAuthorsParvin MirmiranView author publicationsYou can also search for this author in

PubMed Google ScholarZeinab HoushialsadatView author publicationsYou can also search for this author in

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PubMed Google ScholarContributionsPM designed the study. ZG, ZH and ZB collected the data from previous studies, ZG, PM and ZH wrote the manuscript, FA corrected the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.Corresponding authorCorrespondence to

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Reprints and permissionsAbout this articleCite this articleMirmiran, P., Houshialsadat, Z., Gaeini, Z. et al. Functional properties of beetroot (Beta vulgaris) in management of cardio-metabolic diseases.

Nutr Metab (Lond) 17, 3 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12986-019-0421-0Download citationReceived: 25 August 2019Accepted: 23 December 2019Published: 07 January 2020DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12986-019-0421-0Share this articleAnyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:Get shareable linkSorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.Copy to clipboard

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KeywordsBeetrootHypertensionDiabetesKidney functionNitric oxide

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